Jha A.R. Rare Earth Materials. Properties and Applications

Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2014. — 330 p. — ISBN: 978-1-4665-6402-2.Recent studies indicate that China accounts for about 96 percent of the world’s supply of rare earth materials (REMs). With REMs becoming increasingly important for a growing number of high-tech applications, appropriate action must be taken to mitigate the effects of a shortage of critical REMs in defense systems and components. Bringing together information previously available only from disparate journal articles and databases, “Rare Earth Materials: Properties and Applications” describes the unique characteristics and applications of 17 REMs. It defines their chemical, electrical, thermal, and optical characteristics. Maintaining a focus on physical and chemical properties, it addresses the history and critical issues pertaining to mining and processing REMs. In this book, Dr. A.R. Jha continues his distinguished track record of distilling complex theoretical physical concepts into an understandable technical framework that can be extended to practical applications across commercial and industrial frameworks. He summarizes the chemical, optical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, and spectroscopic properties of REMs best suited for next-generation commercial and military systems or equipment. Coverage includes extraction, recycling, refinement, visual inspection, identification of spectroscopic parameters, quality control, element separation based on specific application, pricing control, and environmental/geo-political considerations. Potential applications are identified with an emphasis on scientific instruments, nuclear resonance imaging equipment, MRI systems, magnetic couplers for uranium enrichment equipment, battery-electrodes, electric motors, electric generators, underwater sensors, and commercial and military sensors. The book describes unique applications of rare earth magnets in all-electric and hybrid electric cars and microwave components. It also considers the use of rare earth magnets in commercial and military systems where weight and size are critical design requirements. Suitable for both students and design engineers involved in the development of high-technology components or systems, the book concludes by summarizing future applications in electro-optic systems and components, including infrared lasers, diode-pumped solid-state lasers operating at room temperatures, and other sophisticated military and commercial test equipment.Foreword

History and Discovery of Rare Earth MaterialsEarly History of Rare Earth Materials
Early History of Rare Earth Oxides
Key Processing Requirements for Rare Earth Elements and Their Oxides
Worldwide Rare Earth Material Deposits
Initial Worldwide Mining Operations for Rare Earth Materials
U.S. History of Rare Earth Materials Development
Potential Commercial and Industrial Applications of Rare Earth Materials
Commercial Applications
Industrial Applications
Defense System Applications
Requirements for Building a U.S. Supply Chain
Corrective Measures to Overcome the Shortage of Rare Earth Metals for Defense Products
Impact on Defense Product Performance due to Lack of Appropriate Substitutes
Identification of Security Risks due to Nonavailability of Rare Earth Elements and Alloys
Processing Efforts to Convert Rare Earth Ores and Oxides into Metals for Defense System Applications
Market Dominance by China Could Affect the Supply of Rare Earth Materials for Defense Use
U.S. Demand for Rare Earth Materials for Various Defense System Applications
Industrial Applications Using Mischmetal
Properties of Rare Earth Materials Best Suited for Industrial Applications
Chemical Properties
Metallurgical Properties
Electro-Optical Properties
Magnetic Properties
Nuclear Properties
Effect of Impurities on the Quality of Rare Earth Materials
Impact due to Substitution on Rare Earth Materials
Role of Rare Earth Materials in Nuclear Reactor Performance
Effects on Specific Applications due to Variations in Properties
Applications of Lanthanides
Impact of International and World Trade Organization Guidelines on Supply of REEs
Critical Role of China in the Development of the Rare Earth Element IndustryProperties and Applications of Rare Earth Oxides, Alloys, and CompoundsProcessing Requirements for Rare Earth Materials
Mining and Surveying Requirements
Production and Availability of Rare Earth Oxides
Recycling Issues
Environmental Considerations
Geopolitical Considerations
Rare Earth Pricing Considerations
Description, Properties, and Applications of Rare Earth Elements, Oxides, Alloys, and Compounds
Rare Earth Oxides
Properties of Rare Earth Elements, Oxides, and Compounds
Lutetium
Dysprosium
Neodymium
Samarium
Cerium
Ytterbium
Thorium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Yttrium
Thulium
Thallium
Availability of Rare Earth Materials in Various Forms and Their Principal Applications
Rare Earth Metals
Rare Earth Oxides
Rare Earth Compounds
Rare Earth Organometallics
Rare Earth Materials Used in the Development of Fuel Cells
Design Requirements for High-Temperature, High-Power Fuel Cells
Optimum Rare Earth Materials for Anodes, Cathodes, and Electrolytes
Perovskite Cathode Materials
Rare Earth Materials for Electrolytes
Rare Earth Materials for Anodes
Performance Improvement of Rechargeable Batteries, Infrared Lasers, and Fuel Cells Using Rare Earth Materials or Their Oxides in Conjunction with Other Metals
Applications for Sputtering Targets, Evaporation Materials, Foils, and Thin Films
Sputtering Targets
Rotating Sputtering Targets
Applications of Sputtering Targets and Other Evaporation Materials
Electronics and Semiconductors
Antiabrasive Coatings
Magnetic Materials
Optical Coatings and Architectural Glass
Solar Energy Panels Equipped with Photovoltaic Cells
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
Data Storage Materials
Potential Deposition Techniques without the Sputtering Target MethodProperties and Applications of Rare Earth–Based Superconductive Magnetic MaterialsMagnetic Parameters and Glossary of Magnet Terminology
Measurement Systems and the Units Used
Rare Earth-Based Permanent Magnets and Their Applications
Neodymium-Iron-Boron Permanent Magnet
Nd-Fe-B Magnet Performance Capabilities
Potential Applications of Nd-Fe-B Magnets
Samarium-Cobalt Permanent Magnets
Conventional Low-Price Magnetic Materials with Acceptable Performance Levels
General Comments on Various Magnets
Magnetization and Anisotropic Properties at Cryogenic Temperatures
Anisotropic Properties
Estimation of Saturation Magnetization and Anisotropy Parameters of Various Rare Earth Crystals
Low-Temperature Hysteresis Loop from Samarium-Cobalt Magnets
Potential Commercial and Industrial Applications of Rare Earth Magnets
Typical Commercial and Industrial Products Using Neodymium and Samarium Magnets
Industrial Motors and Generators
Medical Applications Involving Rare Earth Magnets
Applications for Rare Earth Permanent Magnets in Defensive and Offensive Weapon Systems
Impact of Temperature on Rare Earth Magnet Performance
Use of Rare Earth Permanent Magnets in High-Power Microwave Components
Rare Earth Materials for Filters, Delay Lines, and Limiters
Use of Rare Earth Magnets in Electric Cars, Stepper Motors, and Synchronous Motors
Rare Earth Magnets for High-Speed Trains and Ship Propulsion
Application of Rare Earth Crystals for Precision Atomic Clocks
Yttrium-Iron-Garnet Oscillators
Role of Rare Earth Materials in Superfluid Cooling Devices for Sub-Kelvin Cooling
Rare Earth Materials for Electronic Applications
Rare Earth Manganese Silicides and Their Applications
Rare Earth Metal Fluoride and Its Applications
Rare Earth-Based Titanates and Their ApplicationsRare Earth Materials and Films Best Suited for Various Applications, Such as Lasers, Electro-Optic Sensors, and Magneto-Optic DevicesTheory and Classification of Lasers Using Rare Earth Elements
Applications of Continuous-Wave and Pulsed Lasers
Classic Problems Associated with High-Power Lasers
Application and Performance Capabilities of Selected REE-Based Lasers
Nd:YAG and Nd:Yttrium-Lithium-Fluoride Lasers and Their Potential Applications
Single-Lamp High-Efficiency Nd:YAG Lasers
Nd:YAG Lasers for Space Optical Communication
Neodymium:Yttrium-Lithium-Fluoride Lasers
Gadolinium-Scandium-Gallium Oxide Lasers
Performance Capabilities and Advantages of Erbium:YLF Fiber Lasers Emitting at 2.8 μm
Yb-YAG Laser Systems for Military Applications
Laser Systems Deploying Multilevel Doping of Rare Earth Host Crystals
Ho:Tm:LuLiF₄ Laser with Two-Level Doping Involving Two Host Crystals
Advantages and Disadvantages of Lamp Pumping and Solid-State Diode Schemes
Threshold Energy and Slope Efficiency of Ho:Tm:LuLiF₄ and Ho:Tm:YLiF₄ Laser Systems Using Rare Earth Materials
Quantum-Well Lasers Involving Rare Earth Materials and Their Potential Applications
System Performance Parameters and Anisotropy Characteristics
Maximum Gain as a Function of Current Density for Parabolic Quantum Well Systems
Quantum-Well Laser Diodes Using Conventional Semiconductor Materials
Applications of Rare Earth Elements in Atomic Clocks
Performance Capabilities of Atomic Clocks Using Rare Earth Elements
Performance Capabilities of Caesium Atomic Clocks
Performance Capabilities of Rubidium Atomic Clocks
Applications of Superconducting Compounds Using Rare Earth Elements
Potential Applications of Some Prominent Rare Earth Compounds
Applications of Neodymium and Yttrium
Applications of Erbium
Microwave Filters Using Yttrium
Applications of Superconducting Ceramic Compounds Involving Rare Earth Elements
Unique Characteristics of Thin Films Using Rare Earth Elements and Their Applications in Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Devices
Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Components Using Thin Films Made from Rare Earth Elements
Use of Rare Earth Materials in the Design of Ring Resonators and Radiofrequency Oscillators
Performance of a Hybrid RF Oscillator Using Planar Superconductive Microwave Integrated Circuit Technology and YBCO Thin Films
Performance Capability of a Surface Acoustic Wave Compressive Receiver Using Superconducting YBCO Thin Films
Cryogenically Cooled Wideband Compressive Receivers Using Chirp Filters Made from YBCO Thin Films
Applications of Rare Earth Materials for Heavy Electrical Equipment
Application of Rare Earth Materials in the Design of High-Speed Levitated Trains
Operating Principals and Performance Capabilities of Electrodynamic Levitation Trains
Rare Earth Superconducting Magnet Requirements
Important Characteristics of Nd-Fe-B Superconducting Magnets
Applications of Rare Earth Compounds in Commercial Equipment and Medical Diagnostic Systems
Use of Rare Earth Compounds in Automobile Components
Role of Rare Earth Materials in the Medical Field
Rare Earth–Based Magnets for Offensive and Defensive Weapon Systems
Ubitron Amplifers
Platinum in the Design of Jet Engines, High-Speed Gas Turbines, Scientific Equipment, and Nuclear Reactors
Deployment of Rare Earth Materials in the Design of Electronic, Electro-Optic, Piezoelectric, Magnetoelastic, Ultrasonic, Surface Acoustic Wave, and Ferroelectric Components
Acoustic Materials for Room-Temperature Propagation of Microwave Energy in an Acoustic Form
Pulse Compression Filters Requiring Dispersive Delay Lines
Solid-State Microwave Delay Lines
Materials for Transducer Applications
Deployment of Rare Earth Materials in Nuclear Power ReactorsCritical Roles of Rare Earth Elements in the Manufacturing of Iron, Steel, and Other Alloys Suited for Industrial ApplicationsForms of Iron
Interface of Iron-Graphite
Important Mechanical Properties of Gray Irons and Their Close Alloys
Properties of Malleable Irons
Role of Rare Earth Materials as Nodulizers in the Production of Nodular Iron
Most Common Nodulizing Materials in the Production of Nodular Iron
Role of Rare Earth Materials as Nucleating Agents
Elimination of Iron Carbon
Role of Rare Earth Materials in Controlling Deleterious Elements
Future Role of Rare Earth Elements in the Commercialization of Nodular Iron
The Role of Rare Earth Materials in the Steel Industry
Rare Earth Alloys Currently Used in the Steelmaking Industry
Physical Properties of Mischmetal
Rare Earth Silicide Alloy
Various Rare Earth Metal Alloys
Physical Chemistry and Ferrous Metallurgy Aspects of Rare Earth Metals
Some Limitations of the Manganese Sulfide Approach
Impact due to Substitution of Manganese Sulfide
Replacement of Manganese Sulfide with Rare Earth Sulfides
Commercial and Industrial Applications of HSLA Steel
Steelmaking Practices Used by Steel Producers
Problems Associated with Rare Earth Metals
Mechanical Problems from Clustering
Serious Operating Problems, Such as Nozzle Blockage
Problems with Bottom Cone Segregation
Cost Projection of Rare Earth Metal Alloy
Summary of Solutions to Problems Associated with REM Addition to Liquid Steel
Techniques for Manganese Sulfide Control
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking during REM Application
Critical Effects due to Sulfide Shape Control
Rare Earth Metal Hydride Effect
Summary of the Metallurgical Effects of Rare Earth Metals in Steel
Role of Rare Earth Materials as Noncracking Catalysts
Potential Catalytic Commercial and Industrial Applications of Nonstoichiometric Oxides
Performance of Cerium-Promoted Lummus Catalysts
Importance of Ammonia Synthesis
Polymerization Process
Oxidation Process
Potential Application of Catalytic Agents to Determine Automobile Exhaust Emissions
Description of Potential Catalyst Shapes
Effects on Catalytic Activity from Materials with Perovskite Structures
Critical Role of Delayed Conversion of Carbon Oxide ConversionApplications of Rare Earth Intermetallic Compounds, Hydrides, and CeramicsRare Earth Intermetallic Compounds and Rare Earth Hydrides
Distinct Properties of Rare Earth Intermetallic Compounds
Magnetic and Electrical Properties of Rare Earth Hydrides
Heterogeneous Catalysis with Rare Earth Intermetallic Compounds
Magnetism of Rare Earth–Cobalt Intermetallic Compounds
Low-Temperature Magnetic Properties of Hybrids and Deuterides of Er(Fe_1-x Mn_x)₂ Compounds
Applications of Hydrides
Storage of Hydrogen as a Hydride
Production Approach for Hydrogen from Hydrides
Critical Properties of Hydrides
Disassociation Pressures of Various Rare Earth-Based Hydrides
Rare Earth Ceramics, Their Properties, and Applications
Most Popular Rare Earth Ceramics and Their Applications
Advantages of Ceramic Permanent Magnets
Rare Earth-Based Ceramics for Magnetohydrodynamic Power Generators
Requirements of Rare Earth Compounds for MHD Power Generators
Material Property Requirements for the Design of MHD Electrodes
Description of Potential Rare Earth-Based Electrode Materials
Most Promising Materials for the MHD Generator Applications
Cermet and Chromate Materials and Their Benefits
Electrode Test and Evaluation Data
Most Ideal Ceramic and Refractory Materials for MHD System Applications
Electrical Conductivity as a Function of Electrode Temperature
Thermal Conductivity of Various Oxides Used in MHD Electrodes
Performance of Advanced Rare Earth Ceramic and Refractive Materials for MHD System Components
Comments on the MHD Electrode MaterialsContributions of Rare Earth Materials in the Development of the Glass Industry, Crystal Technology, Glass Polishing, Electro-Optical Devices, and the Chemical IndustryCritical Role of Rare Earth Materials in the Development of Various Glass Categories
Cerium Oxide
Lanthanum Oxide
Neodymium Oxide
Praseodymium Oxide
Coloring Effects of Rare Earth Oxides
Classification of Glass Materials Free from Rare Earth Oxides
Types of Glass Tat Do Not Contain Rare Earth Oxides
Interaction between Colorant Ions
Decolorizing Effects due to Glass Impurities
Effects of Rare Earth Materials on the Properties of Optical Glass
Major Characteristics of Optical Glasses
Fluorescence of Glass
Use of Rare Earth Elements in the Development of Polishing Compounds
Three Distinct Theories of the Polishing Mechanism
Benefits of Chemical Etchants during Polishing Procedures
Worldwide Market for Cerium Oxide
Consumption of Cerium Oxide as a Polishing Compound
Economic Benefits of Rare Earth Materials
Other Factors Influencing Glass Polishing
Role of Rare Earth Elements in the Development of Crystals for Lasers and Minilasers
Theory and Design Concept for Minilasers
LOS Crystal Growth
Procedure to Form Minicrystals from Polycrystalline LOS Powder
Formation of Good-Quality Ultraphosphate Single Crystals (NdP₅O₁₄) for Laser Applications
Fluorescence Results and Laser Effects of the Crystals
Trivalent Praseodymium-Doped:Yttrium Lithium Fluoride Laser Operating at Room Temperature
Trivalent Praseodymium-Doped Lithium-Yttrium Fluoride Laser Operating at 0.64 μm
Threshold Energy Density for a Four-Level Laser
Two-Micron Rare Earth Lasers Operating at Room Temperatures
Performance Parameters of Diode-Pumped Ho:Tm:YLF Lasers
Performance Parameters of Ho:Tm:YLF Lasers
Critical Role of Rare Earth Elements in the Chemical Industry
Lanthanum Chromite Electrodes
Role of Rare Earth Elements in the Development of Catalytic Materials
Catalytic Material for Oxygen Electrodes
Lanthanum Perovskite on a Spinel-Coated Metal
Preparation of a Catalyst Using Lanthanum with Cobalt and Nickel
Advantages of Complex Metal Silicates
Formation of Solid Solutions from Catalysts with Lanthanum
A New Catalyst Involving Nickel and Silver
Formation of Mixed Oxide Compounds for Casting Super-Alloy Materials
Zinc Aluminate for Water Treatment Catalysts
Lanthanum Alloys for Hydrogen Storage with Hot Gas Engines
Role of Rare Earth Materials in Microwave and Electronic Components Best Suited for Military and Medical Applications
Role of Yttrium-Iron-Garnet in Military System Applications
Role of Samarium Cobalt Permanent Magnets for ECM and Radar Systems
Rare Earth-Based Garnets and Mixed Garnets
Potential Applications of Mixed Garnets
Europium Iron Garnet
Gadolinium Iron Garnet
Terbium Iron Garnet
Yttrium Aluminum Garnet
Lithium Ferrite SpinelIndustrial Applications of Pure Rare Earth Metals and Related AlloysTrends in Industrial Applications Using Mischmetal and Its Alloys
Mischmetal Production Capacities of Industrialized Countries
U.S. Companies
European Companies
South American Companies
Asian Companies
Potential Industrial Applications of Mischmetal
Cobalt Magnets for Automobile Components and Accessories
Cast Steels with Mischmetal Content for Continuous Casting
Improvement in Ferrite Stainless Steels
Improvements in Modular and Nonmodular Graphite Iron Materials Using Mischmetal
Use of Mischmetal to Eliminate Environmental Problems
Production of Free-Machining Steel
Benefits of Electroslag Remelted Steels
Energy Storage Devices
Applications of Samarium Metal
Deployment of Rare Earth Oxides to Reduce the Cost of Samarium Magnets by Using Mischmetal Alloy
Rare Earth Magnets for Commercial, Space, and Military Applications
Compositions of 2:17 Alloys
Critical Applications of Rare Earth Elements in High-Technology Areas
Application of Rare Earth Elements for Nuclear Shielding
Thermal Neutron Shielding Materials
Application of Neutron Radiography
Sealed-Tube Neutron Generators for Cancer Therapy
Rare Earth Metals for the Lighting Industry
Superconducting Ternary Rare Earth Compounds and Their Magnetic Properties
Magnetic Moments of Rare Earth Ions in Ternary Compounds
Impact of Exchange Interactions in Superconducting Compounds
Specific Heat as a Function of Temperature for Gadolinium-Based Compounds
Properties of Ternary Rare Earth Rhodium Borides
Specifc Heat of ErRh4B4 as a Function of Temperature under Applied Magnetic Field
Crystallographic Qualities of Rare Earth Crystals and Their Unique Properties
Crystal Growth Using the Czochralski Method
Quality Control Techniques
Structural Properties and Applications of Tri-Arc Crystals
Applications of Levitation-Grown Crystals
Molten Regions during the Crystal Growth Procedure
Levitation Process
Comparison between the Tri-Arc and Levitation Methods
Role of Rare Earth Metals and Oxides in the Design of Nanotechnology Sensors
Nanotechnology Devices, Sensors, and Their Potential Applications
Solar Cells Using Nanotechnology and High-Quality Thin Films
Focal Planar Array Detectors Using Thin Films of Rare Earth Materials and Nanotechnology
Miscellaneous Devices Using Nanotechnology and Rare Earth Materials for Defense and Commercial Applications
Nanotechnology- and MEMS-Based Materials for Armor
Nanotechnology and Rare Earth Materials for Analog-to-Digital Converters
Microheat Pipes Using a MEMS Device and Nanotechnology-Based Heat Pipes
Electrochemical Actuation Mechanism Using Nanotechnology
Miniaturized Nanotechnology-Based Laser Scanning Systems
Mischmetal and Nanotechnology-Based CNTs for Helicopter Components
High-Power, High-Temperature Electronic Components Using Rare Earth Oxides
High-Power, High-Temperature Capacitors for Various Electronic Modules
Rare Earth Materials for High-Temperature, High-Energy Capacitors
Optimum Sintering Temperatures for Various Layers
Techniques and Equipment Required to Measure the Important Characteristics of the Specimen
Dielectric Properties of BIT and BNT Ceramics and BNT/BIT/BNT Composite Ceramic Layers
Capacitance and Voltage Ratings for High-Energy Capacitors Using Multilayer Technologies
Unique Dielectric Materials for High-Temperature, High-Energy-Density Capacitors
Performance Characteristics of Various Types of High-Voltage Capacitors
Next-Generation Ultracapacitor
Operating Principle of Nanotube-Enhanced Ultracapacitors
Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanotube-Enhanced Ultracapacitors